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Proved handwashing saves mothers' lives; ridiculed and died in an asylum.

Proved that invisible organisms cause disease — and that we can beat them.

Identified the mosquito as the vector of yellow fever.

Founded American psychology and, with Peirce, pragmatism; studied New Thought as 'mind-cure'.

The silver stain that made neurons visible.

Founded neuroscience by drawing the neuron doctrine.

Invented psychoanalysis and the modern language of the unconscious.

Doctor-playwright who invented modern drama's subtext.

First great synthesiser of Chinese and Western medicine; his case records still teach clinicians.

Ophthalmologist whose novels ignited the Philippine revolution; executed at 35.

Founded anthroposophic medicine with Ita Wegman; still practised in European hospitals.

The only person to win Nobel Prizes in two different sciences.

Physician of Unani medicine who built its modern colleges and led the Indian National Congress.

Isolated a pancreatic hormone before the Toronto insulin team.

Founded Arya Vaidya Sala at Kottakkal and industrialised classical Ayurvedic pharmacy.

Dentist whose global survey of traditional diets tied refined food to physical degeneration.

Eradicated yellow fever from Rio and founded Brazilian public health.

German émigré who founded American naturopathy and its first college in 1902.

Co-authored the founding text of anthroposophic medicine and opened its first clinic in Arlesheim.

French consul in China whose L'Acuponcture Chinoise opened the practice to Europe.

Described a disease, its parasite and its vector single-handedly.

Opened Britain's first birth-control clinic; the charity still operates in 37 countries.

Penicillin; antibiotics have saved an estimated 200 million lives.

First Latin American science laureate; pituitary role in glucose metabolism.

Co-discovered insulin and sold the patent for one dollar.

Discovered pantothenic acid and argued for biochemical individuality — the idea beneath functional medicine.

Turned penicillin from curiosity into mass-manufactured medicine.

Recast affirmation as subconscious programming for a postwar readership.

Acquired immune tolerance, the basis of transplantation.

Rescued acupuncture from abolition and rebuilt it on anatomical terms with filiform needles.

Revived Kampo in Japan and secured its place inside the national health insurance system.