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Republican theory and oratory that still frame constitutional argument.

The Prince separated political analysis from moral instruction.

Leviathan founded the modern theory of sovereignty and the social contract.

Consent, property and toleration — the template for liberal constitutions.

Separation of powers, copied into nearly every written constitution since.

The Wealth of Nations founded economics as a discipline.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman founded feminist political theory.

Population pressure as an economic law; the argument every food and climate debate revisits.

Comparative advantage and rent theory — still the core argument for trade.

Principles of Political Economy and On Liberty joined markets to individual freedom.

Das Kapital made class, capital and crisis the permanent grammar of economic argument.

The Condition of the Working Class in England founded empirical labour economics.

Linked bureaucracy, religion and capitalism; founded the sociology of organisations.

Argued governments should spend in a slump — and every modern state now does.

Creative destruction — the standard account of how innovation reshapes industries.

The Great Transformation showed markets are made by states, not found in nature.

Cumulative causation and the economics of racial inequality in America.

Prices as information; the intellectual engine of late-century market liberalism.

Computer architecture, game theory, quantum foundations.

Imperfect competition and a lifelong challenge to orthodox capital theory.

The Origins of Totalitarianism remains the reference work on how republics fail.

Invented management as a discipline and named the knowledge worker.

The Entrepreneurial State reframed public investment as the source of major innovation.

Capital in the Twenty-First Century put wealth inequality data at the centre of policy.

Randomised trials made development aid an experimental science.